Midwest Research To Practice 1994

TOWARD A MODEL FOR EVALUATING COMMERCIALLY PREPARED CRITICAL THINKING MATERIALS FOR ADULT LITERACY

Good Morning
My name is Cindy Blodgett-McDeavitt and I am a graduate assistant at the University of Nebraska at Lincoln.

About a year and a half ago I became interested in critical thinking in the area of ABE. I had been looking at workbooks for critical thinking.

I had been informally evaluating the kinds of skills that people need to be able to vote intelligently and make informed decisions in a society indulged with slick advertising.

I began to read the critical thinking literature, of which there is a vast amount, and became familiar with the definitions of Ennis and others who view critical thinking as a process to find a preexisting answer.

When Merriam and Caffarrella introduced me to the notion that critical thinking is a higher order thinking process, I was really confused - confused because higher order thinking is generally reserved for abstract level thinking, and the schools teach critical thinking to children who are concrete thinkers.

In addition, the terminology in the literature is sometimes confusing and contradictory. One researcher says that problem solving is critical thinking. Another says that critical thinking is required for effective problem solving, but that critical thinking has other components apart from problem solving.

Further digging led me to a book by JCS Kim who led me into the thought that critical thinking was necessary for an individual to make decisions that will benefit the health of the individual and society.

Kim combines creative thinking with critical thinking with the result being an approach similar to critical pedagogy or healthy social change.

The notion of critical thinking for social change seems to me to be different from critical thinking for solving math puzzles.

I revisited the critical thinking workbooks for adult literacy education to see what was the approach.

I found that the critical thinking examples which I received from publishers and the descriptions of others in their respective catalogues seemed to equate critical thinking with problem solving.

I then revisited the definitions of literacy and began to see that in the very definitions there are different expectations for learners in regards to their critical thinking development.

I began to think that critical thinking has several components or paradigms - that the controversy between camps is not really necessary - and that all of the paradigms are necessary parts of critical thinking instruction for the adult literacy learner, like it is for everyone else.

Critical thinking as is a term which is being used to describe a wide array of skills.

My objective here today is to describe a framework for looking at fundamental variations in definitions of critical thinking.

Then I will revisit the policies and definitions which affect adult literacy learners to examine expectations and assumptions in terms of the critical thinking framework.

Having laid this groundwork, we will then take a look at an evaluation tool which I developed as a means to determine the type of critical thinking skills which are presented in ABE workbooks.

The value of such a tool is that the practitioner can use it to determine if the approach to critical thinking presented in the material is a good fit for the type of critical thinking that the learner must address.

There will be time for questions at the end and as this study is one that is in process, along with my personal understanding of the complexity of literacy as well as cognitive psychology, I welcome your comments and suggestions for future directions.

Increased complexity of life skills and technology, and change of personal and social values have resulted in an increased demand on literacy practitioners to be equipped to teach not only basic reading and writing skills, but also thinking skills, to prepare the adult literacy learner to succeed in a technologically changing society.

LITERACY DEFINITION- OVERHEAD

The Adult Education Act was passed by the United States Congress as a means to curb the rising tide of illiteracy in the United States and promote attainment of high school completion for movement into the workforce. More than two decades later, the National Literacy Act of 1991 redefined literacy to include achievement of ones goals, and development of ones knowledge and potential. These policies were meant to ensure that literacy education would be available to all eligible adults.

In addition, NALS includes the use of printed and written information to function in society, and Goals 2000 refers to the need for people to practice their responsibilities as citizens and participate in the democratic process.

However, no longer does literacy refer to simple reading and math computation, but is broadening to include basic competencies identified by the SCANS Report which include productive use of:

  • Resources
  • Interpersonal Skills
  • Information
  • Systems and
  • Technology

    OVERHEAD-SCANS
    SCANS also identified A Three-Part Foundation of Basic Skills, Thinking Skills, and Personal Qualities

    Basic Skills consist of

  • Reading
  • Writing
  • Arithmetic/Math
  • Listening
  • and Speaking

    Thinking Skills include

  • Creative Thinking
  • Decision Making
  • Problem Solving
  • Seeing Things in the Minds Eye
  • Knowing How to Learn, and
  • Reasoning
  • and Personal Qualities

    We will focus on the Thinking skills, some of which are Critical Thinking Skills identified in the literature

    Current emphasis on basic skills required by industry have resulted in curriculum designed to focus on specific skills as preparation to attain employment, rather than just getting a GED or learning to read to ones children.

    Now that welfare reform is being addressed and school-to-work policies are in place in some areas, the focus on employment skills can be directly addressed with clearly defined objectives.

    As companies downsize or change their technological focus, Critical thinking skills have found their way into workplace expectations. The Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System, or CASAS, has an entire section of critical thinking skill requirements and curriculum to develop a certain set of critical thinking skills in learners.

    In addition, the whole notion of functioning in society can include participation in democracy and media literacy which requires an individual to possess another set of critical thinking skills

    To be able to think Critically has become an expectation of societal and workplace literacy.

    The critical thinking literature is vast. I concentrated my literature review on critical thinking skills as pertaining to adults and adult literacy. The field is heavy with literature for K-12. Higher education holds its own as well.

    Adult education and especially adult literacy is less well represented, however. The adult literacy learner is a subject which has been only recently studied, in comparison with K-12.

    In 1989 Hayes and Valentine reported on a study involving the APL survey which indicated that there is a wide variance in the way that adult literacy learners perceive their own learning needs which differs from the way in which outside forces, i.e. test designers, teachers, policy-makers and perceive their learning needs.

    Comparison of agendas of outside agents with agendas of learners themselves will be touched on here only very lightly in terms of differences and possible conflicts in the nature of critical thinking skills which should be offered to the learner.

    LETS LOOK AT SOME ASSUMPTIONS OVERHEAD

    What assumptions exist about critical thinking in education of adults

  • 1. Education should stimulate reasoning ability to enhance the adult learner's coping skills in personal and societal contexts (Kurfiss, 1988).
  • 2. Think critically but to transfer that ability to life situations (Ennis, 1992)
  • 3. The ability to think in a critical manner is a skill which empowers the adult to participate effectively in society, or to change society (Brookfield, 1991; Freire, 1978; Hunkins, 1989; Kim, 1993; Norris, 1992).
  • 4. Lack of critical thinking ability limits the individuals ability to reach goals and personal potential (Kim, 1993).
  • 5. Although critical thinking literature has historically been grounded in K-12 and higher education research, it is not enough to teach critical thinking to adult literacy learners from those perspectives.
  • 6. The divergent learning goals indicated by policy and daily life contexts (including the workplace) require approaches to teaching critical thinking to the adult literacy learner which are different from K-12 or higher education.
  • 7. Paradigms and methodologies utilized by commercially prepared curricular materials must correspond to the learning and teaching needs of the literacy classroom.
  • 8. Critical thinking skill-building may be opposed by students because of level of difficulty, and by parents and organizations for teaching individuals to think critically about dogma and policy (Merriam & Caffarella, 1988).

    Interestingly enough, the SCANS Report offers a quick review of critical thinking skills required in several types of jobs which prioritized creative thinking skills in the lower third of necessary basic skills.

    Problem solving, thinking which some equate as critical thinking and others do not, is consistently ranked higher than creative thinking, defined as being able to find novel solutions to problems.

    Creative thinking was a high priority for basic skills learners which in training for a job such as a graphic designer.

    Different need for cognitive skills in entry level jobs are reported in a study conducted by the Adult Literacy Center of the Lehigh Valley in Pennsylvania. where a McCrossan did an analysis of 43 literacy tasks in small and midsized businesses in 5 occupational areas.

    In prioritizing the skills needed, employers ranked reasoning and cognitive skills first, followed by speaking and listening skills, personal attributes, and lastly reading skills.

    The findings also indicate that critical thinking skills are needed in order to move into more responsible positions (leading to higher pay and increased ability to function in society)

    It appears that employers want workers who can perform certain kinds of critical thinking tasks. Problem solving is a high priority ndicated in the SCANS report. Reasoning ability is high for the Lehigh Valley study.

    What assumptions exist about the adult literacy learner? OVERHEAD

  • 1. Adult learners have adult goals and objectives - adult agendas - which influence participation and learning.
  • 2. Literacy learners have usually met with difficulties or failure during their K-12 years.
  • 3. Adult literacy learners have developed elaborate and effective means to survive though illiterate
  • 4. Are not empty cups waiting to be filled with knowledge but are deserving of respect (UNICEF199x)

    OVERHEAD : UNICEF WOMAN

    THREE PARADIGMS OF CRITICAL THINKING

    As I explored the literature, I found fundamental differences in the nature of truth, domain specificity vs. cross-contextual application of a general skill, and approach to real life contexts. Three general paradigms emerge from the literature:
    (a) absolutist;
    (b) generalizable;
    (c) holistic.

    These three paradigms of critical thinking have distinct characteristics, and distinct uses.

  • 1 There exist characteristics unique to each paradigm.
  • 2. Scholarly attempts to further clarify critical thinking will continue because each paradigm is grounded in reliable research (Johnson, 1992).
  • 3. a good definition of critical thinking must be able to display its connection with educational objectives and with the history of the term (Johnson).

    Absolutist-OVERHEAD

  • 1. Absolutist world view approaches critical thinking as a correct way of thinking to effectively seek out a correct answer, or an objective truth (Dauer, 1989; Kim, 1993; Norris, 1992; Schumacher & McMillan, 1993).
  • 2. Expressed in logic, analytical reasoning, critical inquiry, and scientific method, this world view has been extensively researched during this century.
  • 3. Scholars who adhere to the absolutist paradigm view critical thinking as a tool for seeking preexisting truth (Baker, 1989; D'Angelo, 1989; Dauer, 1989; Ennis, 1992; Kurfiss, 1986; McCutcheon, 1992; Meyers, 1986).
  • 4. Critical thinking can occur only within a fixed domain of expertise. Background knowledge is essential for thinking in a given domain.(Ennis 1992)
    a) Simple transfer of critical thinking dispositions and abilities from one domain to another domain is unlikely; however,
    b) transfer becomes likely if, but only if, there is sufficient practice in a variety of domains and there is instruction that focuses on transfer.
  • 5. Scholars have developed extensive lists of characteristics of critical thinking which serve as tools for identification and evaluation and dozens of attitudes and skills required for development of critical thinking which focus on scientific method, logic, good and bad reasoning, domain specific content, deduction, value judgment, observation, credibility, assumptions and meaning, problem definition, logical, linguistic and empirical skills, faulty thinking, and determining whether an hypothesis is true (D'Angelo, 1971; Stice, 1987; Vockell and van Deusen, 1989).
  • 6. Absolutist critical thinking skills are not cross-contextually transferable and do not include memory cues to facilitate transfer.

    Generalizable or Relativistic (Kitchener & King)-OVERHEAD

  • 1. Discovering meaning and emerging truth is a function of the generalized paradigm (Kim, 1993; Kurfiss, 1988; Meyers, 1986)
  • 2. Critical thinking becomes an inductive frame of mind (Johnson, 1992)
  • 3. Critical thinking is taught as a discipline unto itself which may be applied across contexts.
  • 4. Reflection plays an essential role in development and practice of critical thinking.
  • 5. Generalizable approach facilitates cross-contextual transfer, as an abstract process which is learned, then applied to content.
  • 6. Generalizable critical thinking includes approaches which are adaptable to new and different applications in which new insights become apparent and possibilities for novel applications evolve, generally within the domain.
  • 7. The generalizable paradigm is designed for the transfer of critical thinking from the classroom to daily life, a goal of the educational ystem (Norris, 1992) and current national policy. Lessons include exercises which draw from learnerá'ás real-life experience, thus improving possibility of actually usingœ the information addressed in class.
  • 8. An abstract process characterized by intellectual curiosity, objectivity, open-mindedness, flexibility, intellectual skepticism, intellectual honesty, being systematic, persistence, decisiveness, and respect for other viewpoints (Kurfiss, 1988).
  • 9 Successful application of cognitive psychology learning strategies to critical thinking teaching-for-transfer seems to be a natural step.

    Holistic-OVERHEAD

  • 1. Critical thought as an emancipatory step toward improving the lot of humankind in society
  • 2. Truth involves a component of social and personal responsibility.
  • 3. Both absolutist and generalizable thinking, are required for an individual to think in a manner which seeks viable solutions to life's problems. Kim (1993)
  • 4. Holistic critical thinking is a world view in which the spiritual and cultural development of the individual are the means to mold character to meet the present and future needs of the nation. (Kim 1993)
  • 5 A creative element must be incorporated with critical thinking to enhance the health of society and attain a happy life for the individual. (Kim 1993)
  • 6. Ultimate value of critical thinking as a means to achieve a better society by utilizing of methods of inquiry to reach more accurate assessment to produce more accurate judgments. D'Angelo (1971)
  • 7. Freire and Kim approach critical thinking from an emancipatory perspective as an agent for social change (Freire, 1978; Kim, 1993). Brookfield (1986, 1991) discusses critical thinking as emancipatory thought which addresses critical skepticism and any thinking that results in change in the individual or society.

    Holistic critical thinking facilitates transfer cross-contextually within domains, but emphasizes divergence to new applications and novel approaches which result in benefit to society and responsible life choices.

    Critical thinking which reflects a movement from domain specificity to societal and personal life scenarios are key characteristics of the holistic paradigm.

    This view would embrace Brookfield's (1987) discussion of imaginative speculation, imagining alternative ways of living and thinking; reflective skepticism, calling into question established assumptions of truth about norms and roles within interpersonal relationships; and the difficult task of understanding the perspectives of others. References to daily life, workplace applications or benefit to society are also key characteristics.

    LETS REVISIT DEFINITIONS NOW

    National Literacy Act
    ability to read, write and speak in English -this is pretty straightforward absolutist- this expectation of literacy is to learn a skill - English compute and solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job and in society

    First of all, what is a level of proficiency? for this one we can go to the CASAS or the SCANS report for clarification. Read page 1 of Critical Thinking Assessment Items for Employability-a Resource for Instructors

    Interestingly enough, the critical thinking assessment is strongly problem solving in scope: Identify, Recognize, Interpret. This is clearly a generalizable approach to critical thinking. The skill of problem solving is applied to different contexts

    Three words added here add a whole new dimension to literacy. What is necessary to function in society? What do these words mean?

    This is very broad-from knowledge of traffic lights to multicultural literacy. There's knowledge of laws; Parenting skills; Media literacy; Reading labels on food containers; Deciphering consumer and campaign advertising....

    This aspect of literacy caught my attention because one of my undergraduate majors at Moorhead State University was mass communications and advertising.

    My study of the psychological strategies involved in advertising has made me acutely aware of the vulnerability of a population which does not have the reading ability to read the fine print and the critical thinking skills to determine fact from emotion in advertising.

    In addition, My volunteer work as an advocate for social change within my Minnesota community brought home to me the vulnerability of people who rely on the media for truthful information giving and don't even know that the media acts as a hegemonic gatekeeper.

    Without critical thinking skills which include reflective skepticism and critical questioning, the population is, frankly, at risk of existing according to the agendas of vested interests.

    This is not the same kind of critical thinking required to perform a math puzzle. Brookfield (1987), Blatz (1992) and others suggest that critical thinking is a concept which is defined differently according to the context in which it is used.

    The operative words here are to enhance the health of society and attain a happy life for the individual.

    Thinking skills necessary to be successful with this angle on literacy carry immense Social and Personal implications.

    In 1986 Stephen Brookfield published his article: Media Power and the Development of Media Literacy: An Adult Educational Interpretation. He discussed ideological detoxification in terms of the relationship of the individual with the media.

    He said "the representations of political realities presented on television and in the press are often culture specific, influenced by vested interests, and reflect an unchallenged ideological orthodoxy.

    The mass media, sometimes deliberately by frequently unwittingly, tend to offer distorted, crudely simplistic personalized analyses of political issues.

    He goes on to say that "a major task of adult education must be to remove this perceptual poison from individuals minds and to nurture in them a healthy skepticism toward ideologically biased explanations of the world.

    This speaks to the Holistic paradigm of critical thinking.

    To achieve ones goals...What is involved with this? Goal setting is imperative in literacy education. Upon entering a literacy program, the intake interviewer asks what the learners goals are.

    That's a tough question, especially if the client has not experienced any career awareness training or is not personally reflective. I intern with the local JTPA program, and one of the skills that I teach is in the area of goal-setting. In the classroom the instructor and I take the students through a goal-setting workshop. The goal must be important, specific, and feasible. Personal implications and applications are involved here. The clients do not usually have a good working understanding of how to approach goal setting. Without the awareness, the client may say I want my GED, or I want to help my kids with their homework. These are ok, but can limit a persons horizons.

    Reflective questioning is at work as well as Imaginative speculation as the client envisions a new life application.

    Holistic Critical thinking is involved in this process.

    How does a person develop knowledge? Is this the same as developing expertise? or does Knowledge involve a deeper cognitive process? Glover, Ronning and Bruning describe three types of Knowledge:

    Domain-Specific, or information directly related to a domain or subject matter (similar to the absolutist paradigm of critical thinking),

    General Knowledge, or knowledge appropriate to a wide range of tasks, not tied to any one task; (similar to the generalizable paradigm), and

    Strategic Knowledge, or knowledge which combines domain-specific and general knowledge to create a knowledge about how to complete a task, for example: organizing ideas, using language suitable to the audience, writing in a way to reflect the perspective of the reader are examples of Strategic Knowledge given by the authors.

    Strategic skills play an essential role in the process of self monitoring of cognitive processes related to school-related tasks.

    One might guess that one factor contributing to the literacy learners situation in regards to an initial failure to connect with school has to do with lack of development of strategic skills in childhood)

    If we had all day we could go into the role of knowledge in cognition, but I would need to have a colleague with considerable domain-specific knowledge in the discipline of educational psychology to give a hand.

    To develop ones potential is a notion which is highly value laden with underlying hegemonic tones.

    Does this aspect of literacy include just economic potential, or does it include personal development or transpersonal growth.

    Is this related to culture, and if so, whose culture? Are these decisions made according to white middle-class values, and then applied to, for example, women from cultures where they do not go outside the home without an escort?

    Is a woman who is in a life situation where she is able to choose to be an at-home mother living up to her potential?

    Is a low income woman who has children and no source of economic support, but whose calling is to mother the children considered living up to her potential?

    Who is the judge? and who is responsible for the thinking here? Welfare-to-work reformers? Spiritual leaders? Rush Limbaugh?

    We can follow the same analysis process for every definition of literacy that is in use today. We'll find similar approaches to critical thinking in the NALS definition and in the GOALS 2000 reference.

    At this point I would like to explore the evaluation tool which I developed to help practitioners determine the paradigm of critical thinking curriculum. I have three examples of workbooks which represent these paradigms.

    OVERHEAD-TOOL

    The tool is designed to follow the elements of a publication from outside to inside.

    Along the left side are the characteristics of the paradigms. These are easily identifiable characteristics but require familiarity with concepts and terminology. Therefore, a training manual which outlines domain-specific knowledge, definitions, and procedural outline would accompany the tool. This wouldn't make any sense to a person whose concept of critical thinking is limited to the absolutist paradigm.

    OVERHEAD OF TOOL
    VERBALLY OUTLINE USE OF TOOL
    MAKE MARKS ON OVERHEAD TO SHOW PROCEDURE

    I want to thank you for being a gracious audience. The floor is open to questions.